In Hamlet, how had Laertes found out about Polonius' death?

It appears from the text that Laertes was in France when he heard about Polonius's death, presumably from a friend, acquaintance, or court gossip. Shakespeare doesn't show this scene; it's part of the action that happens offstage.

Our first confirmation that Laertes knows about his father's death comes in Act IV, Scene 5, when Claudius is speaking to Gertrude about Ophelia's psychologically disturbed behavior:

Her brother is in secret come from France;Feeds on his...

It appears from the text that Laertes was in France when he heard about Polonius's death, presumably from a friend, acquaintance, or court gossip. Shakespeare doesn't show this scene; it's part of the action that happens offstage.

Our first confirmation that Laertes knows about his father's death comes in Act IV, Scene 5, when Claudius is speaking to Gertrude about Ophelia's psychologically disturbed behavior:

Her brother is in secret come from France;
Feeds on his wonder, keeps himself in clouds,
And wants not buzzers to infect his ear
With pestilent speeches of his father's death;
Wherein necessity, of matter beggar'd,
Will nothing stick our person to arraign
In ear and ear.

The secret nature of Laertes's return from France is consistent with the idea that he learned about the death while he was there, and came back secretly so he could take Claudius—the presumed killer—by surprise.

Note that "wants not buzzers" means Laertes has no shortage of gossip regarding the circumstances of his father's death. He's hearing all sorts of bad things ("pestilent speeches") about it, and Claudius assumes Laertes believes Claudius is responsible.

Later, in Act IV, Scene 5, Laertes rushes into the palace to confront Claudius:

How came he dead? I’ll not be juggled with.

To hell, allegiance! Vows, to the blackest devil!

So Claudius was right—Laertes does assume Claudius is complicit in some way. Gertrude tries to assure Laertes that Claudius is guiltless, as does Claudius. The king asks Laertes to come with him—and find some of Laertes's friends—to hear corroboration.

Make choice of whom your wisest friends you will,

And they shall hear and judge ’twixt you and me.

Later in the play, Laertes reappears, apprised of the fact that Hamlet, not Claudius, killed Polonius.

In Shaw's Arms and the Man, why does Bluntschli say that the bet would rob Major Petkoff?

Bluntschli says that the bet would rob Major Petkoff because Catherine is sure to be right about the whereabouts of the major's favorite coat. So, if Major Petkoff bets against both Catherine and Bluntschli, he will be sure to lose a tidy sum of money.

In Act III, everyone is relaxing after lunch, when Major Petkoff exclaims that he would be more comfortable in his old coat. His wife, Catherine, tells him that his coat is probably hanging in the blue...

Bluntschli says that the bet would rob Major Petkoff because Catherine is sure to be right about the whereabouts of the major's favorite coat. So, if Major Petkoff bets against both Catherine and Bluntschli, he will be sure to lose a tidy sum of money.

In Act III, everyone is relaxing after lunch, when Major Petkoff exclaims that he would be more comfortable in his old coat. His wife, Catherine, tells him that his coat is probably hanging in the blue closet, but Major Petkoff disagrees with her. He accuses his wife of being obstinate and insists that the only items in the blue closet are two of Raina's old dressing gowns, Catherine's waterproof coat, and his own mackintosh.

Unmoved by her husband's argument, Catherine calls upon their servant girl, Nicola, to fetch the major's coat from the blue closet. In the meantime, Major Petkoff proclaims that he will bet any piece of jewelry Catherine can order at the jeweler's against a week's housekeeping money that the coat isn't in the blue closet. He also calls on Bluntschli to take up the bet, but the latter refuses. Bluntschli replies that Catherine is sure to be right about the coat and he would essentially win the bet, thus "robbing" Major Petkoff of his money. In the end, of course, it is proved that Catherine is right, and Nicola is able to retrieve the major's coat from the blue closet.

What is an example of an argument that is valid but not deductively valid?

A deductive argument is one that provides a guarantee of the conclusion reached through that argument being true as long as the argument's premises themselves are true. 

So, let's look at an example:

If the Titanic hit an iceberg at 11:40 PM on April 14, 1912, then Donald Trump is a cockroach. 

The Titanic hit an iceberg at 11:40 PM on April 14, 1912.

Therefore, Donald Trump is a cockroach. 

In this example, the structure...

A deductive argument is one that provides a guarantee of the conclusion reached through that argument being true as long as the argument's premises themselves are true. 

So, let's look at an example:

If the Titanic hit an iceberg at 11:40 PM on April 14, 1912, then Donald Trump is a cockroach. 

The Titanic hit an iceberg at 11:40 PM on April 14, 1912.

Therefore, Donald Trump is a cockroach. 

In this example, the structure of the argument itself is valid. It follows the pattern:

If P, then Q.

P.

So Q.

Technically, this argument is valid because according to the logical setup of the argument, it is impossible for its premises to be true while its conclusion is false. That being said, this does not make it deductively sound (which I think is what you were really trying to ask in your question!), as the premises here are false. The Titanic did hit an iceberg at that time and date, but that has no connection to whether or not Donald Trump is a cockroach. Donald Trump is actually not a cockroach, but rather the Republican's candidate for President--a human being. Thus, you have a valid but unsound argument. 

Is bread good for your health?

These days it seems that bread has become a sort of forbidden food among people concerned about their health. From the popularity of low-carb diets to the proliferation of gluten-free foods, bread is suffering from a real image problem. It is true that simple carbohydrates like starches and sugars are not good for us in large amounts; they raise the blood sugar levels quickly, and white flour products often contain empty calories devoid of the...

These days it seems that bread has become a sort of forbidden food among people concerned about their health. From the popularity of low-carb diets to the proliferation of gluten-free foods, bread is suffering from a real image problem. It is true that simple carbohydrates like starches and sugars are not good for us in large amounts; they raise the blood sugar levels quickly, and white flour products often contain empty calories devoid of the fiber and nutrients of whole grains. The absence of fiber can affect digestion and elimination in negative ways, and a low fiber diet is associated with a host of health problems including colon cancer and diverticulitis.

Gluten is harmful to the health of people who have celiac disease, but most people who decide to cut back on bread (and similar products such as pasta and baked goods) experience a greater sense of well being simply because they're not experiencing the blood sugar spikes and sluggish digestion caused by white flour products.

Whole grain bread can be part of a healthy diet. Some people find that bread made without yeast (such as sourdough) is more digestible than yeasted bread. Some people prefer breads made with organic flours and grains. Bread containing at least 3 grams of fiber per serving is considered best for an optimally healthy diet.

Overall, how does Dickens present the relationship between children and adults in Great Expectations?

As in many of his novels, Charles Dickens portrays children as innocent victims of the actions of adults. This is a reflection of his continued bitterness over his being sent to work in a blacking factory as a child in order to help get his father out of debtors’ prison. His mother forced him to continue working even after his father's release.

In Great Expectations, Dickens portrays Pip as the victim of the abuse...

As in many of his novels, Charles Dickens portrays children as innocent victims of the actions of adults. This is a reflection of his continued bitterness over his being sent to work in a blacking factory as a child in order to help get his father out of debtors’ prison. His mother forced him to continue working even after his father's release.

In Great Expectations, Dickens portrays Pip as the victim of the abuse of his sister, Mrs. Joe. Pip receives very little education and resents this because he thinks it will limit his future as an adult. His encounter with Abel Magwitch, the convict, leads him to live in constant terror, fearing the convict will return to harm him.

Besides Pip, Estella is also portrayed as the victim of Miss Havisham’s desire to wreak havoc on all men. This prevents her from seeking a normal relationship with Pip and leads her into an abusive marriage.

Both Pip and Estella manage to escape the torments of the adults in their lives as they become adults themselves. The intimation that they eventually find a healthy relationship as adults presents Dickens’s hope for a happy ending for unhappy children.

How do I get a Pokestop in my house?

Although Niantic is not currently accepting requests for Pokemon Go stops, many hope they will reopen the form at some point so that you can ask them to place one in your area.

Niantic originally used stops from another of their games, Ingress, as their Pokestops. This means that they directly imported that information into Pokemon Go. Because of this, many rural areas don't have Pokestops—which can be a real problem for people who want...

Although Niantic is not currently accepting requests for Pokemon Go stops, many hope they will reopen the form at some point so that you can ask them to place one in your area.

Niantic originally used stops from another of their games, Ingress, as their Pokestops. This means that they directly imported that information into Pokemon Go. Because of this, many rural areas don't have Pokestops—which can be a real problem for people who want to play the game but don't live near any cities.

For a short period of time after releasing the game, Niantic accepted requests for Pokestops. You might want to check back periodically to see if they have reinstated the request box. The form is found on the Pokemon Go support page. You have to click on the "Submit a request" button and then select that you wish to add a Pokestop or Gym. The form then asked for additional information, such as name suggestions and an address.

While it might seem fun to have a Pokestop outside of your house, remember that you would not be the only person to use it. Do you really want people camped out in front of your house all day and night? Probably not. Niantic will not add Pokestops or Gyms to homes (unless there is a special needs case), so make sure to request a public location.

If, however, you are a special needs person or have a disability, rumors say that Niantic will consider adding a Pokestop or Gym within reach of your location.

What famous novel describes World War I?

The most famous novel to describe World War I is All Quiet on the Western Front by Erich Maria Remarque.  Remarque was a German writer who had fought and been wounded in the Great War.  He wrote this, his most famous work, in 1928.

All Quiet on the Western Frontis famous because of the way in which it depicts the horrors of war.  The book follows the experiences of a young soldier, Paul Baumer,...

The most famous novel to describe World War I is All Quiet on the Western Front by Erich Maria Remarque.  Remarque was a German writer who had fought and been wounded in the Great War.  He wrote this, his most famous work, in 1928.

All Quiet on the Western Front is famous because of the way in which it depicts the horrors of war.  The book follows the experiences of a young soldier, Paul Baumer, during the last days of the war.  The book attempts to convey to the reader all the negative aspects of war.  It shows the boredom, the hunger, and the terror.  It shows how being a soldier and going to war alienates Paul from his family and civilian life.  It shows how pointless the war is as men die in battles that accomplish nothing.  Finally, it shows how little regard there is for any individual life as Paul dies at the end of the war but the report from the front is “all quiet on the Western Front.”  Paul has died, but the world is told that nothing happened on the Western Front that day.

Because Remarque’s novel portrayed the war in such stark and negative terms, it became very popular among many.  It is the most famous novel to describe WWI.